Americium (95)

The luster of freshly prepared americium metal is whiter and more silvery than plutonium or neptunium prepared in the same manner. Americium is a component of the smoke detector above.

Americium appears to be more malleable than uranium or neptunium and americium tarnishes slowly in dry air at room temperature. Americium is a radioactive rare earth metal which must be handled with care to avoid contact, since it is a heavy α and γ emitter. It is named after America. The α activity of 241Am is about three times that of radium. Americium is available to qualified users in the UK and in the USA.

•Name: Americium
•Symbol: Am
•Atomic number: 95
•Atomic weight: [ 243 ]
•Standard state: solid at 298 K
•CAS Registry ID: 7440-35-9
•Group in periodic table:
•Group name: Actinoid
•Period in periodic table: 7 (actinoid)
•Block in periodic table: f-block
•Color: silvery white
•Classification: Metallic

Historical informationAlthough americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments, it was first intentionally synthesized, isolated and identified in late autumn 1944, at the University of California, Berkeley, by Glenn T. Seaborg, Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso. They used a 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. The element was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory) of the University of Chicago. Following the lighter neptunium, plutonium, and heavier curium, americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered. At the time, the periodic table had been restructured by Seaborg to its present layout, containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one. This led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium; it was thus by analogy named after another continent, America: "The name americium (after the Americas) and the symbol Am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rare-earth series, analogous to europium, Eu, of the lanthanide series."

The new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex, multi-step process. First plutonium-239 nitrate (²³⁹PuNO₃) solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0.5 cm² area, the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide (PuO₂) by annealing. After cyclotron irradiation, the coating was dissolved with nitric acid, and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution. The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid. Further separation was carried out by ion exchange, yielding a certain isotope of curium. The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the Berkeley group as pandemonium (from Greek for all demons or hell) and delirium (from Latin for madness) * and now you have some extra Greek and Latin word knowledge for free!*

Physical properties
•Melting point: 1449 [or 1176 °C (2149 °F)] K
•Boiling point: 2880 [or 2607 °C (4725 °F)] K
•Density of solid: 13780 kg m-3

Orbital properties
•Ground state electron configuration:  [Rn].5f7.7s2
•Shell structure:  2.8.18.32.25.8.2
•Term symbol:   8S7/2
•Pauling electronegativity: 1.3 (Pauling units)
• First ionization energy: 578 kJ mol-1
• Second ionization energy: no data kJ mol-1

Occurrence

Americium was detected in the fallout from the Ivy Mike nuclear test.

The longest-lived and most common isotopes of americium, ²⁴¹Am and ²⁴³Am, have half-lives of 432.2 and 7,370 years, respectively. Therefore, all primordial americium (americium that was present on Earth during its formation) should have decayed by now.

Existing americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980, as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents, such as the Chernobyl disaser. For example, the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, Ivy Mike, (1 November 1952, Enewetak Atoll), revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium; due to military secrecy, this result was published only in 1956. Trinitite, the glassy residue left on the desert floor near Alamogordo, New Mexico, after the plutonium-based Trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 July 1945, contains traces of americium-241. Elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a US B-52 bomber, which carried four hydrogen bombs, in 1968 in Greenland.

In other regions, the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 0.01 picocuries/g. Atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles. Soil analysis revealed about 1,900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores; an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils.

Americium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities, for research purposes. A tonne (unit of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 pounds)) of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of various americium isotopes, mostly ²⁴¹Am and ²⁴³Am. Their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal, and therefore americium, together with other long-lived actinides, has to be neutralized. The associated procedure may involve several steps, where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short-lived nuclides. This procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation, but it is still being developed for americium.

Synthesis and extractionIsotope nucleosyntheses:

Americium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades, and kilograms of its ²⁴¹Am and ²⁴³Am isotopes have been accumulated by now. Nevertheless, since it was first offered for sale in 1962, its price, about 1,500 USD per gram of ²⁴¹Am, remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure.  The heavier isotope, ²⁴³Am, is produced in much smaller amounts; it is thus more difficult to separate, resulting in a higher cost of the order 100,000–160,000 USD/g.

Americium is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from the plutonium isotope ²³⁹Pu. The plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12% of ²⁴¹Pu. Because it spontaneously converts to ²⁴¹Am, ²⁴¹Pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further ²⁴¹Am. However, this process is rather slow: half of the original amount of ²⁴¹Pu decays to ²⁴¹Am after about 15 years, and the ²⁴¹Am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years.

The obtained ²⁴¹Am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor. Americium-242 has a half-life of only 16 hours, which makes its further up-conversion to ²⁴³Am, extremely inefficient.

Health concerns

As a highly radioactive element, americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements. Although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials, many of the daughter products emit gamma-rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth.

If consumed, americium is excreted within a few days and only 0.05% is absorbed in the blood. From there, roughly 45% of it goes to the liver and 45% to the bones, and the remaining 10% is excreted. The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age. In the bones, americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time. The biological half-life of ²⁴¹Am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver, whereas in the gonads (testicles and ovaries) it remains permanently; in all these organs, americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity.

Americium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors. The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions. In the U.S., the "Radioactive Boy Scout" David Hahn was able to concentrate americium from smoke detectors after managing to buy a hundred of them at remainder prices and also stealing a few. There have been cases of humans being contaminated with americium, the worst case being that of Harold McCluskey, who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium-241 as a result of an explosion in his lab. McCluskey died at the age of 75, not as a result of exposure, but of a heart disease which he had before the accident